Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Introduction

Studies have identified Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as one of the risk factors determining delinquency in youth and adulthood (Wojciechowski, 2021). Although the exact causal link between ADHD and delinquency is not well-known, there is a significantly disproportionate representation of individuals with ADHD in the prison population. This essay argues that there is an association between ADHD and increased likelihood of juvenile delinquency.

ADHD

ADHD is one of the fastest growing neurodevelopment disorders facing children and adolescents, whose symptoms persist into adulthood. Around 5% of school-aged children are diagnosed with ADHD. Deficits related to ADHD include remarkable lapses in judgment and impulse control, problem-solving, decision-making in risky activities, working memory (Cunial et al., 2019). Individuals diagnosed with ADHD display emotional problems, disruptive behaviors, self-harm, defiant behaviors, substance abuse, and antisocial behaviors (Sayal et al. 2017). Additionally, individuals with ADHD account for 26% of the forensic population for adults and 30% for juveniles (Cunial et al., 2019). Further, they have higher recidivism rates and reoffend sooner.

Delinquency

 Juvenile delinquency is a conduct typified by antisocial behavior that is subject to legal action. However, this conduct or violation committed by youth is not punishable by life sentence or death. Many behavior indicators are employed to operationally define delinquency. Delinquent behaviors employed as indicators might include aggression, verbal and physical assault, truancy, stealing, property destruction, drug use, trespassing, extortion, prostitution, and promiscuity (Wojciechowski, 2021). Based on these indicators, Wareham and Dembo (2007) reported the following aspects among juvenile delinquents: 16% had committed trespassing, 18% felony (violence), 26% misdemeanor (assault), and 33% misdemeanor against property.

ADHD and Delinquency

 There is a significant association between ADHD in youth and delinquency. Delinquent behavior may be explained by high echelons of impulsivity and low levels of self-control (). Additional symptoms displayed by those with ADHD include inattentiveness, inability to act rationally about one’s behavior and consequences, and impulsivity. A body of research supports is a significant risk factor for the development of antisocial behavior in adulthood. According to Holst and Thorell (2020), people diagnosed with childhood ADHD are two time at risk of being arrested in adulthood as compared with those without ADHD. Young and Cocalis (2019) found that incarcerated prisoners with ADHD diagnosis become involved with the law earlier in life.

Children with childhood ADHD are more likely to commit crimes as adults. Antisocial behavior and ADHD in childhood are strong predictors of offending in adulthood. There is a general consensus and agreement that serious delinquency starts early, with issues at home and school. Youth with ADHD appear impaired in several domains and engage in a diverse of problem behaviors that disrupt peer relationships, school, and family (Holst &Thorell, 2020). For some children with untreated ADHD, the effects continue into adulthood. When ADHD combines with conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder, individuals are more likely to involve in criminality and antisocial behavior (Farrington, & Loeber, 2012).

ADHD poses a significant additive influence on the continuance of delinquency.

ADHD is a significant risk factor involvement in delinquent behavior in adolescence and adulthood (Shelton & Pearson, 2016). Impulsivity, one of the major symptoms of ADHD, contributes to increased likelihood for offending. When encountering provocative situations, ADHD subjects individuals to reactive aggressive behavior, setting them to act impulsively without thinking rationally. Impulse characteristic also increase risk for violence (Chester et al., 2015).  

A significant number of people with ADHD are overrepresented in incarcerated adult and youth population. ADHD is associated with criminal offending. ADHD behaviors contribute to delinquency in relation to status offenses, illicit substance use, and engagement in violent incidents. Research has found a disproportionately high ADHD prevalence in population of incarcerated adults and youth. While the research suffers from methodological weaknesses, finding show that 24-67% of youth prisoners meet the childhood ADHD criteria and 23-47% of adult prisoners for adult ADHD (Matsumoto et al., 2005). Schilling, Walsh and Yun (2012) claimed it is difficult to pinpoint the exact causal relationship between ADHD and criminality because there is remarkable comorbidity with multiple psychiatric disorders that are themselves risk determinants for delinquent behavior, especially conduct disorder and substance abuse. However, retrospective cohort and longitudinal studies have supported an increase in risk for offending and reoffending with ADHD, after controlling conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder comorbidity (Birks, & Douglas, 2018). From the above discussion, it is evident that ADHD in childhood can contribute to delinquency behavior in adolescence and adulthood.   

Conclusion

Scholars agree that mental health matters when deciding delinquency, especially ADHD. ADHD is the well-known mental health problem affecting the youth. A significant body of evidence have supported an association between ADHD in young people and increased probability of delinquency. Children who have ADHD are at higher risk of criminality although ADHD’s role remains unclear. They are more likely to involve in numerous antisocial activities compared with children without ADHD. Juvenile delinquents display high rates of behavioral and emotional problems that increase their contact and interaction with the criminal justice system.

Reference

Birks, D. & Douglas, T. (2018). Treatment for Crime: Philosophical Essays on Neurointerventions in Criminal Justice. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Chester, D.S., DeWall, C.N., Derefinko, K. J., Estus, S., Peters, J.R., Lynam D.R., & Jiang Y. (2015). Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) genotype predicts greater aggression through impulsive reactivity to negative affect. Behavioural Brain Research, 283, 97-101

Cunial, K., Casey, L., Bell, C., & Kebbell, M. (2019). Police Perceptions of the Impact That ADHD Has on Conducting Cognitive Interviews with Youth. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 26, 252-273.https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2018.1504241

Farrington, D. & Loeber, R. (2012). From Juvenile Delinquency to Adult Crime: Criminal Careers, Justice Policy and Prevention. United Kingdom: OUP USA.

Holst, Y., & Thorell, L. (2020). Functional Impairments among Adults with ADHD: A Comparison with Adults with Other Psychiatric Disorders and Links to Executive Deficits. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 27, 243-255. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2018.1532429

Matsumoto, T. et al. (2005). Drug preference in illicit drug abusers with a childhood tendency of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A study using the Wender Utah Rating Scale in a Japanese prison. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 59, 311-318.

Sayal, K., Prasad, V., Daley, D., Ford, T., & Coghill, D. (2017). ADHD in Children and Young People: Prevalence, Care Pathways, and Service Provision. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5, 175-186.https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30167-0

Schilling, C.M., Wash, A. & Yun, I. (2012). ADHD and criminality: A primer on the genetic, neurological, evolutionary, and treatment literature for criminologists. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39: 3-11

Shelton D., Pearson G. (2016). ADHD in juvenile offenders: Treatment issues nurses need to know. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 43, 38-46.

 Wareham, J., & Dembo, R. (2007). A longitudinal study of psychological functioning among juvenile offenders: A latent growth model analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 259–273.

Wojciechowski, T. W. (2021). The Role of ADHD in Predicting the Development of Violent Behavior Among Juvenile Offenders: Participation Versus Frequency. Journal of Interpersonal, 36(1-2), NP625-NP642. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517734225

Young, S., & Cocallis, K. (2019). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in the Prison System. Current Psychiatry Reports, 21, 41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1022-3